TOEFL iBT Reading Practice

Before the mid-15th century, the landscape of information in Europe was one of scarcity and control. The production of books was a laborious, time-consuming, and expensive process undertaken primarily by scribes, often monks living in monasteries. (1) These individuals would manually copy texts, letter by letter, onto prepared animal skin (parchment) or vellum. A single book could take months, or even years, to complete, and the potential for human error in transcription was immense. Each copy was unique, with its own set of mistakes and variations. (10) This system of manual reproduction meant that books were exceedingly rare and expensive commodities, effectively confining literacy and advanced knowledge to the wealthiest echelons of society and the clergy.

This reality was shattered by the work of one man: Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany. ■ Around 1440, Gutenberg synthesized several existing technologies into a revolutionary system that would change the world. ■ While movable type had been developed in China centuries earlier, it had not been widely adopted due to the thousands of characters in the Chinese writing system. Gutenberg’s key contribution was the creation of a complete printing system for the much smaller Latin alphabet. ■ This system integrated three crucial elements: movable, reusable metal type; a rich, oil-based ink that adhered well to metal; and a screw-type press, adapted from those used for making wine and pressing paper, which could apply firm, even pressure. ■ In 1455, this new technology produced its first major work: the Gutenberg Bible.

The immediate effect of the printing press was a dramatic increase in the volume and variety of written material available. (3) Within fifty years of Gutenberg’s invention, an estimated 20 million books had been printed in Western Europe, a number that likely exceeded the entire output of European scribes during the preceding millennium. This “print revolution” fundamentally altered the structures of power that relied on controlling information. University students could now own personal copies of textbooks instead of sharing a single master copy. (4) Political pamphlets and royal edicts could be distributed widely, creating a more informed—and often more critical—public. The cost of books plummeted, making them accessible not just to the rich but also to a growing middle class of merchants and artisans, which in turn spurred a dramatic rise in literacy rates across the continent.

The long-term consequences were even more profound, with the printing press acting as a primary catalyst for the two most significant movements of the early modern period: the Renaissance and the Reformation. ■ The Renaissance, a fervent revival of interest in the classical art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome, was massively accelerated by print. ■ The ability to rapidly reproduce identical copies of scientific works and classical manuscripts meant that intellectual breakthroughs and humanist philosophies could spread with unprecedented speed and fidelity across Europe. ■ Scholars in Italy could read and build upon the work of their counterparts in England or Spain, knowing they were all working from the exact same text. (5) Scientists like Copernicus and Vesalius were able to disseminate their groundbreaking, and often controversial, theories to a wide audience, laying the foundation for the Scientific Revolution. ■

Simultaneously, the printing press provided the engine for the Protestant Reformation. In 1517, when Martin Luther wrote his Ninety-five Theses criticizing practices of the Catholic Church, his supporters quickly printed and distributed the document throughout Germany. (7) What might have been a minor local dispute became a widespread theological and political rebellion. Luther recognized the power of the press, using it to produce thousands of pamphlets and, most importantly, a German translation of the Bible. ■ This act directly challenged the Church’s long-held monopoly on scriptural interpretation. ■ For the first time, individuals could engage directly with a sacred text, fostering a personal relationship with their faith that ultimately fractured the religious unity of Europe and reshaped its political and cultural map forever. ■ (8) This new access to scripture in the vernacular was a key factor in diminishing the absolute authority of the clergy. ■